Bharat’s Major Defence Import Sources and How They Have Shifted Over Time: Building Bonds: The Diplomacy Behind Bharat’s Defence Deals” Focuses on defence imports as a tool of diplomacy. Bharat chooses certain partners, and what it gets beyond just weapons.

Bharat’s Major Defence Import Sources and How They Have Shifted Over Time:

Building Bonds: The Diplomacy Behind Bharat’s Defence Deals” Focuses on defence imports as a tool of diplomacy. Bharat chooses certain partners, and what it gets beyond just weapons.

By leena and Kartik Sharma

Abstract:

This paper explores the transformation of Bharat’s defence import policy from a dependency-based model to a strategic instrument of diplomacy and self-reliance. Historically reliant on the Soviet Union, Bharat has, since 2014, diversified its sources to include France, the United States, and Israel, aligning military acquisitions with broader geopolitical objectives. The study highlights how defence procurement has facilitated strategic partnerships, technology transfers, and joint ventures under initiatives like ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ and DAP 2020. Through this shift, Bharat aims to strengthen its strategic autonomy, bolster domestic defence capabilities, and assert its role in regional and global security frameworks.

Introduction:

Bharat, as one of the world’s largest arms importers, has long used defence procurement not only to bridge capability gaps but also as a sophisticated tool of statecraft and diplomacy. While the traditional view of defence imports centres on military modernisation, Bharat’s approach is far more nuanced—defence deals are increasingly leveraged to build strategic partnerships, influence geopolitics, and shape global alliances without compromising its long-held doctrine of strategic autonomy.

In the past, the Soviet Union (and later Russia) dominated Bharat’s defence imports. After the 1962 Sino-Bharat War and the 1965 Indo-Pak War, Western countries, especially the United States, implemented arms embargoes, which marked the beginning of this relationship during the Cold War. With platforms including Submarines, T-72 tanks, and Mig-21s, as well as prospects for local assembly and knowledge transfers—rare in those days—the Soviet Union proved to be a dependable partner (SIPRI, 2023).

However, post-2014, Bharat began diversifying its arms sources. As Russia’s defence sector faced operational challenges, including delayed deliveries and maintenance issues, particularly after the Russia-Ukraine war, Bharat expanded its purchases from Western suppliers such as the United States, France, and Israel. This diversification was not only about accessing cutting-edge technology but also about deepening bilateral strategic ties. The Rafale jet deal with France, for instance, not only addressed the Bharat Air Force’s needs but also enhanced Indo-French cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, a region of growing strategic importance (The Hindu, 2016).

With Bharat signing foundational agreements like COMCASA, LEMOA, and BECA, which allow for more interoperability and real-time intelligence sharing, the US has quickly become a significant Defence partner. C-130J Super Hercules, P-8I Poseidon, AH-64 Apache, and MH-60R Seahawk helicopters are among the major U.S. acquisitions. In addition to combat considerations, Bharat’s goal to fortify the strategic alliance between the United States and Bharat through initiatives like the Indo-Pacific Economic Initiative and QUAD has motivated these purchases (U.S. Department of State, 2022).

Israel, too, has emerged as a pivotal partner, supplying Bharat with missile defence systems (Barak-8), unmanned aerial vehicles (Heron), and electronic warfare systems. The shared security concerns over terrorism and regional instability have made the Bharat-Israel defence partnership one of high trust and strategic value (IDSA, 2022).

What sets Bharat apart is its refusal to enter military alliances, despite deepening cooperation. Its multi-alignment strategy ensures that it maintains independent foreign and defence policies even while securing its geopolitical and security interests. Defence imports thus serve as instruments of diplomatic engagement, allowing Bharat to build economic, technological, and political bonds that extend far beyond the battlefield.[[1]]

Strategic Imperatives of Defence Imports

Strategic Autonomy & the Non-Aligned Legacy; Defence Deals as Diplomatic Currency Bharat often selects partners based on geopolitical alignment, strategic benefits, or diplomatic leverage, not just military needs: Buying Rafale jets from France not only added airpower but also deepened Indo-French strategic ties in the Indo-Pacific.

Bharat’s defence import policy is deeply rooted in its post-independence philosophy of strategic autonomy, which is a modern evolution of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). Rather than being tied to formal alliances or defence blocs, Bharat (Bharat) has consistently emphasised a multi-aligned but non-aligned strategy—one that champions self-interest, independent decision-making, and diplomatic flexibility in a polarised global order.

Historically, the need to maintain this autonomy has guided Bharat’s import decisions. The majority of Bharat’s military hardware during the Cold War was purchased from the Soviet Union. To ensure that no one nation had a monopoly on vital defence equipment, Bharat started diversifying its arms purchases after 1991 and establishing connections with the US, France, Israel, and other nations (Carnegie Bharat, 2022). Bharat has been able to reduce the risks brought on by sanctions, changing geopolitical conditions, and disruptions in the global supply chain thanks to this diversity.

Defence Imports as Diplomatic Currency

In addition to improving military capabilities, Bharat’s massive Defence procurements are also effective instruments of strategic alignment and diplomatic communication. For instance, Bharat’s agreement with France for the Rafale jet was more than just a way to supplement its air capability. In the Indo-Pacific area, where both countries are concerned about China’s growing influence, it marked a strengthening of Indo-French ties. Arms sales can serve as platforms for strategic convergence, as demonstrated by the agreement’s subsequent growth in maritime cooperation and coordinated naval patrols in the Bharat Ocean (Breaking Defence, 2023).

Likewise, the Defence alliance between the United States and Bharat has expanded under the more comprehensive strategic framework of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, or QUAD. Important purchases like the C-130J Super Hercules transport plane, Apache attack helicopters, and P-8I maritime patrol aircraft have strengthened Bharat’s military cooperation with American forces and solidified its position as a major Indo-Pacific security supplier (U.S. Department of State, 2022). However, Bharat has demonstrated its commitment to strategic independence by refusing to sign any official mutual Defence treaty.

Balancing East and West

Bharat has maintained a balanced procurement approach despite the growing tension between Russia and the West, especially during the conflict between Russia and Ukraine. In addition to strengthening its Defence alliances with the West, it still sources vital Defence equipment from Russia, such as the S-400 Triumf air Defence system. This balancing act is best shown by Bharat’s choice to move forward with the S-400 acquisition despite the possibility of U.S. CAATSA (Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act) sanctions. (Brookings, 2021).

This dual-sourcing strategy acts as a hedge against overdependence and geopolitical leverage. By avoiding one-sided reliance, Bharat ensures operational continuity even when international tensions escalate.

Technology Transfer and Self-Reliance

In addition to acquiring weapons, Bharat is using defence imports more and more to facilitate knowledge transfer, the development of domestic capabilities, and industrial growth. The government requires foreign vendors to participate in offset partnerships, local manufacturing, and joint ventures under the Make in Bharat and Atmanirbhar Bharat programs.

For example, Transfer-of-Technology (ToT) agreements are used in the construction of the Scorpene submarine project with France at Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL) in Mumbai. Similar to this, American corporations like Boeing and Lockheed Martin have partnered with Bharat enterprises like Tata Advanced Systems to produce parts for global supply chains locally (ORF, 2023).

Such collaborations reduce Bharat’s dependence on foreign arms while fostering indigenous innovation, job creation, and long-term defence autonomy.

Period of Transition: 2014–2018 and the Rise of Western Suppliers

The years 2014 to 2018 marked a decisive shift in Bharat’s (Bharat’s) defence procurement strategy. While Russia continued to play a major role in supplying arms, a clear trend of diversification emerged as Bharat began engaging more closely with Western defence partners—notably France, Israel, and the United States. This shift reflected strategic calculations aimed at enhancing technological capabilities, ensuring timely deliveries, and reducing dependency on a single nation amid changing global dynamics.

Declining Russian Dominance

Although Russia remained Bharat’s top supplier during this period, its share in Bharat’s total arms imports dropped significantly:

SIPRI data indicates that Russian arms accounted for 58% of Bharat’s imports between 2014–2018, down from 76% in 2009–2013.
Several factors contributed to this decline:
- Delays in deliveries (e.g., aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya).
- Concerns over after-sales service and spare parts.
- Bharat’s increasing emphasis on technology transfers and Make in Bharat initiatives, where Russia was perceived as less forthcoming.[[2]]
  (SIPRI Fact Sheet, 2019\

The Rise of Western Players

France:

The most notable development was the 36 Rafale fighter jet deal signed in 2016, worth €7.8 billion (approx. ₹59,000 crore).
This deal marked a major technological upgrade and symbolised strategic trust between Bharat and France.
France also engaged in submarine construction with Bharat through the Scorpaena-class submarine project, under the P75 program, assembled at Mazagaon Dock Shipbuilders Limited (MDL).[[3]]

Israel:

With an emphasis on precision-guided bombs, surveillance equipment, unmanned aerial vehicles, and missile Defence systems, Israel became one of Bharat’s top three arms suppliers.
Among the projects is the Barak-8 surface-to-air missile system, which was created in collaboration with DRDO and IAI (Israel Aerospace Industries).
Bharat also procured Heron UAVS, Spike anti-tank guided missiles, and electronic warfare systems. [[4]]

United States:

The U.S. made major inroads into Bharat’s defence market, becoming the second-largest supplier by value during this period.
Major procurements included:
- Apache AH-64E attack helicopters.
- Chinook CH-47F heavy-lift helicopters.
- C-130J Super Hercules and C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft.
- P-8I Poseidon maritime surveillance aircraft for the Navy.
This cooperation was enhanced through foundational agreements:
- LEMOA (2016) – Logistics sharing.
- COMCASA (2018) – Secure communication interoperability.[[5]]

Geopolitical Realignments: 2019–2024 and Post-Ukraine Dynamics

Explore how global events and domestic policies have shaped recent import patterns.

The period between 2019 and 2024 has been pivotal for Bharat’s defence import policy, shaped by global geopolitical disruptions, regional security threats, and a strong domestic push for strategic self-reliance. From the outbreak of the Russia-Ukraine war to China’s military assertiveness and Bharat’s defence reforms, this era reflects a deliberate shift in New Delhi’s arms procurement strategy—balancing urgent needs with long-term national interests.

Declining Dependence on Russia

For decades, Russia was Bharat’s most significant arms supplier, accounting for over 55% of imports between 2011 and 2015. However, by 2019–2023, Russia’s share had dropped to approximately 36% of Bharat arms imports (SIPRI, 2024). This sharp decline was precipitated by the Russia-Ukraine war, which began in 2022 and disrupted global defence supply chains.

Sanctions imposed by Western nations on Russian financial and defence firms limited transactions, delayed deliveries, and cut off access to Western-made components integrated into Russian systems. Additionally, Moscow’s internal prioritisation of resources for its war efforts caused major delays in supplying platforms like the S-400 missile system, Su-30mki upgrades, and spare parts for legacy Russian equipment (Brookings, 2023).

Despite these challenges, Bharat maintained a delicate balance by continuing its relationship with Russia for key legacy platforms while increasing diversification to protect operational readiness and geopolitical autonomy.

China’s Assertiveness and the Urgency for Modernisation

The border standoff between Bharat and China in eastern Ladakh in 2020 marked a strategic inflexion point. The clash in the Galwan Valley, the first deadly encounter in decades, revealed vulnerabilities in Bharat’s preparedness for high-altitude and hybrid warfare. This prompted an accelerated push for modernisation across all three services.

Bharat prioritised the procurement of high-mobility vehicles, precision artillery, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance) drones, and electronic warfare systems. Emergency purchases were made from Israel and the United States, including Heron UAVS, loitering munitions, surveillance radars, and winter gear for troops deployed along the Line of Actual Control (ORF, 2021).

Strategic Diversification of Imports

Bharat adopted a strategic multi-vector approach to reduce overreliance on a single supplier. Key new sources emerged, reflecting both geopolitical alignment and access to high-end technologies.

France became a leading defence partner, accounting for 33% of Bharat’s arms imports during 2019–2023. The delivery of 36 Rafale fighter jets, SCALP and Meteor missiles, and the planned procurement of Rafale Marine jets and Scorpene-class submarines strengthened Indo-French ties (SIPRI, 2024; Breaking Defence, 2023).

The United States contributed 13% of arms imports. Bharat acquired platforms like the MH-60R Seahawks, P-8I maritime surveillance aircraft, Apache attack helicopters, and C-130J transport planes. The growing U.S.-Bharat partnership also emphasised interoperability and joint development under the Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (ICET) (U.S. Department of State, 2022).

Israel remained crucial for cutting-edge technologies like missile defence, drones, and surveillance systems. Quick procurement mechanisms post-2020 enabled fast delivery of Heron UAVs, SPYDER air defence systems, and radar suites tailored for mountainous terrain (The Print, 2021).

Additionally, Bharat explored newer partnerships with South Korea (K-9 Vajra artillery systems), Australia (Indo-Pacific security collaboration), and the UK/EU nations for naval and cybersecurity technologies.

Domestic Policy Reform: DAP 2020 and Indigenisation Drive

Bharat’s Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020 was a transformative document aimed at reducing import dependency and fostering indigenous manufacturing. It introduced a new category, “Buy (Global – Manufacture in Bharat)”, compelling foreign OEMs to establish local manufacturing bases. The government also released multiple Positive Indigenisation Lists, banning imports of over 500 defence items to encourage domestic production (PIB Bharat, 2023).

Private sector participation increased significantly, with companies like Tata, L&T, and Bharat Forge taking on major roles in projects involving UAVs, communication systems, and armoured vehicles. Bharat’s defence exports crossed ₹16,000 crore in FY 2022–23, signalling a shift from import dependency to becoming an emerging defence exporter (MoD Annual Report, 2023).

The Role of Strategic Partnerships and Technology Transfers

Soft Power & Global Standing, Defence cooperation often leads to joint exercises, humanitarian missions, training exchanges, and regional influence: Indo-Israel defence ties have opened deeper cultural, technological, and intelligence exchanges. The Role of Strategic Partnerships and Technology Transfers

Strategic partnerships and technology transfers have emerged as vital pillars of Bharat’s modern defence policy. These collaborations go beyond traditional buyer-seller relationships and are increasingly focused on co-development, co-production, and long-term geopolitical alignment. This paradigm shift reflects Bharat’s ambition to become a self-reliant defence power while strengthening its global standing through soft power and regional influence.

Soft Power and Global Standing

From Buyer to Partner: Bharat’s Evolving Procurement Model

Defence cooperation is important for boosting diplomatic relations and projecting soft power, and it goes beyond arms agreements. Training programs, humanitarian aid and disaster relief (HADR) efforts, and joint military drills all contribute to the development of mutual trust and stronger bilateral ties. As an illustration of how strategic defence alliances can spur wider cultural and technological interactions, Indo-Israeli defence ties have grown to include intelligence sharing, cybersecurity, and cooperative research and development [6].

Bharat has traditionally been one of the world’s largest importers of defence equipment [[6]]. However, recognising the risks of over-dependence and the need to develop indigenous capabilities, Bharat has strategically pivoted towards becoming a co-developer and co-producer.

This shift is evident in several high-profile collaborations:

BrahMos Missile Program (Indo-Russian): This joint venture with Russia has produced a world-class supersonic cruise missile and involved deep collaboration between Bharat’s DRDO and Russia’s NPO Mashinostroyenia[[7]].
SU-30MKI and T-90 Tanks: Licensed production agreements with Russia enabled Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and Heavy Vehicles Factory, Avadi, to produce these platforms locally, bolstering domestic manufacturing capacity.[[8]]
FGFA Project: Though the Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft project with Russia was eventually put on hold, it demonstrated Bharat’s interest in next-gen aerospace technology.[[9]]
Rafale and Scorpene Projects (France): The Rafale deal included significant offset obligations encouraging investment in Bharatn companies [[10]]. The Scorpene-class submarines were built at Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL) in Mumbai under a technology transfer agreement with Naval Group of France.[[11]]

US Partnerships: Industrial Base and Ecosystem Development

American firms such as Boeing and Lockheed Martin have shown significant interest in Bharat through the “Make in India” initiative. Lockheed’s offer of the F-21 fighter jet included setting up a manufacturing line in Bharat and exporting from it.[12]]. Boeing, through its Apache and Chinook helicopter programs, has established supplier partnerships with Bharat firms like Tata Advanced Systems [[13]].

Israel: A High-Tech Strategic Ally

Israel is one of Bharat’s most significant defence partners. The Barak-8 missile, co-developed by Bharat’s DRDO and Israel Aerospace Industries, is a successful example of joint R&D and technology sharing [[14]].

Israel has also provided Bharat with UAVs, radar systems, and border surveillance equipment, significantly enhancing Bharat’s intelligence and reconnaissance capabilities. Additionally, Bharat’s private companies have partnered with Israeli firms to co-develop defence tech for both nations’ markets [[15]].

Strategic Implications and the Road Ahead

The broader strategic implications of these partnerships are manifold:

Technological Sovereignty: By incorporating technology transfer and local production into defence deals, Bharat is steadily reducing its dependency on imports.
Export Potential: Bharat has increased its defence exports from ₹1,521 crore in 2016-17 to over ₹16,000 crore in 2022-23[[16]], with platforms like BrahMos, PINAKA rockets, and Tejas fighter jets being offered to foreign buyers.
Geopolitical Leverage: Defence partnerships strengthen Bharat’s influence in key regions like the Indo-Pacific and West Asia while maintaining ties with legacy partners like Russia.
Skill and Capacity Building: Programmes involving joint R&D, manufacturing, and training build domestic expertise, critical for sustaining Bharat’s long-term defence autonomy.

Toward Self-Reliance: The Impact of ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’

Beyond Weapons: Technology Transfers & Joint Ventures, many deals come with promises of Make in Bharat, co-production, and R&D collaboration.

The launch of the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ (Self-Reliant Bharat) initiative in 2020 marked a pivotal transformation in Bharat’s defence policy. Historically known as one of the world’s largest arms importers, Bharat (Bharat) has begun shifting its focus toward indigenisation, technology transfers, and joint ventures, aiming to reduce dependency on foreign suppliers and position itself as a global defence manufacturing hub.

At the heart of this transition lies the realisation that self-reliance in defence is not simply about domestic manufacturing of weapons, but about acquiring the knowledge, skills, and ecosystem needed to design, develop, and sustain complex military platforms. This has led to an increasing number of international defence contracts being tied to technology transfer clauses, local assembly, and R&D collaboration—a trend significantly accelerated by policy reforms under the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020[17].

Foreign Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) are encouraged—or even mandated—to collaborate with Bharat businesses under this new paradigm, particularly for expensive acquisitions. One of the most prominent instances is the agreement to purchase Rafale fighter jets from France’s Dassault Aviation, which has an offset commitment to invest 50% of the deal’s value in Bharat, including through technology transfers and collaborative projects with DRDO18 and Bharat Defence companies.

Similarly, American defence majors like Lockheed Martin and Boeing have set up significant operations in Bharat. Lockheed Martin has partnered with Tata Advanced Systems to manufacture components for the F-16 and C-130J aircraft in Bharat. Boeing has also collaborated with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and Mahindra Defence Systems to produce parts for Apache helicopters and other platforms, highlighting Bharat’s growing role in the global supply chain.[18].

Through the co-development of missile systems like the Barak-8 air Defence missile, which is jointly produced by DRDO and Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI), Israel, another reliable Defence partner, has worked closely with Bharat. These programs allow Bharat to develop long-term indigenous competence in advanced Defence technologies20, in addition to ensuring speedier delivery and cost management.

The Bharat government has issued many “positive indigenisation lists” to formalise this change, phasing out the import of more than 500 military platforms and subsystems, such as light tanks, unmanned aerial vehicles, and radar systems.

The aim is to give domestic players a larger share of defence procurement, which crossed ₹1.26 lakh crore in 2023–24, with 60–70% allocated for domestic contracts.

The creation of defence corridors in Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh, incentives for defence exports, and higher FDI limits in defence (up to 74% under the automatic route) all support these reforms. Bharatn defence exports therefore hit ₹16,000 crore in FY 2022–2023 and are expected to surpass ₹25,000 crore by 202522.

This change is also seen in the Defence budget, where a larger portion is now allocated to domestic procurement. In addition to supporting domestic industry, this shields Bharat against geopolitical pressures and external supply disruptions.

CONCLUSION:

Bharat’s defence import journey reflects a calculated shift from dependency to strategic autonomy. Historically reliant on the Soviet Union for military equipment, Bharat has transformed its procurement policy into a tool of diplomacy, technology transfer, and geopolitical alignment. In doing so, it has reshaped its global posture without compromising its foundational principle of non-alignment.

The last decade, particularly from 2014 onwards, marked a turning point. Russia’s dominance in Bharat’s arms imports began to decline due to supply chain delays, maintenance issues, and sanctions following the Russia-Ukraine war. In response, Bharat diversified its sources, deepening ties with Western powers like France, the United States, and Israel. This diversification was not just about accessing better hardware but also about cultivating multi-dimensional strategic partnerships.

Deals such as the Rafale fighter jets with France, Apache helicopters from the US, and Barak-8 missile systems with Israel have bolstered Bharat’s defence capabilities while simultaneously enhancing diplomatic relations. These partnerships have enabled joint training, real-time intelligence sharing, and increased interoperability, particularly vital in regions like the Indo-Pacific, where Bharat seeks to assert its role as a security provider.

Significantly, Bharat’s defence policy has matured beyond imports. Under the ‘Atmanirbhar Bharat’ initiative and Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP) 2020, Bharat has mandated local production, technology transfer, and private sector participation. Foreign OEMs like Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Dassault have invested in manufacturing facilities, offset agreements, and R&D partnerships with Bharat firms. This has strengthened Bharat’s industrial base, created jobs, and promoted knowledge transfer.

Co-development initiatives such as the BrahMos missile program and licensed production of SU-30MKIs and T-90 tanks reflect Bharat’s transition from buyer to partner. Meanwhile, domestic firms like Tata, L&T, and Bharat Forge have stepped into critical defence roles, aided by reforms like indigenisation lists and higher FDI limits.

Strategically, Bharat balances ties with both East and West. Even as it strengthens Western partnerships, it continues cooperation with Russia on legacy systems and joint ventures. This hedging strategy ensures resilience against supply disruptions and geopolitical shifts. The Galwan Valley clash with China in 2020 further underscored the urgency of modernising and indigenising Bharat’s defence capabilities, accelerating emergency procurements and long-term planning.

Bharat’s increasing defence exports—rising from ₹1,521 crore in 2016-17 to over ₹16,000 crore in 2022-23—highlight a growing confidence in domestic production. With ambitions to cross ₹25,000 crore soon, Bharat is positioning itself not just as a consumer but as a global defence supplier.

In conclusion, Bharat’s defence import strategy now serves a broader national vision: strengthening sovereignty, fostering technological self-reliance, and enhancing geopolitical stature. By turning procurement into a platform for diplomacy, development, and innovation, Bharat is crafting a defence policy that aligns with its aspirations as a rising global power—secure, self-reliant, and strategically independent.

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