Table of Contents

1. Abstract

Introduction
- Background and Context
- Scope and Objectives of the Study

3. Geopolitical Overview of India’s Neighbourhood

Strategic Importance of South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region
Key Players and Relationships: India and its Neighbours
Regional Organizations and Multilateralism (SAARC, BIMSTEC, BRICS, )

4. Implications for Economic Growth

Impact of Geopolitics on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Energy Security and Resource Dependencies
Connectivity and Infrastructure Projects (Belt and Road Initiative, India’s Act East Policy)

5. Implications for Internal Stability

Border Security and National Defense
Social and Political Impact of Cross-border Migration
Regional and Ethnic Conflicts: Case Studies from Northeast India
Terrorism, Radicalization, and Internal Security Challenges

6. Case Studies

India’s Handling of the Doklam Standoff with China
India’s Response to the Pulwama Attack and Balakot Airstrike
The Impact of the Rohingya Crisis on India-Bangladesh Relations

7. Future Outlook

Emerging Trends in Regional Geopolitics
Opportunities for India in Strengthening Economic Ties
Potential Risks to Economic Growth and Stability

Conclusion
References

Abstract

This paper delves into the intricate geopolitical aspects associated with India and their significant, more permanent, effects on the economic performance and social order of the country. In the geographical area of South Asia, characterized with a lot of countries each with its own experienced and historical strife, India has to deal with such regional powers as Pakistan, China, and within the same region, although to a lesser extent, with Bangladesh and Nepal. In this section, the reader will examine the strategic initiatives employed by india and how SAARC. BIMSTECH and BRICS regional groupings aid in supporting multipolarity and enhancing regional peace and security.

Gender and economic growth are intertwined concepts that many feminists and development theorists dislike. The irony here is that they work around the very concept they refuse to accept. This encompasses cross-boundary mobility, spanning issues such as the level of cross-boundary residential and economic activity, the infrastructural states between countries, and national security defense. Tensions are unavoidable due to geopolitical considerations, yet alliances are deemed mutually beneficial; it is this degree of understanding that has sealed aimed investments effectively in the countries. The final thoughts are connected to deciphering the changing geopolitical environment and analyzing them as prospects and threats for India given the context. In considering the nexus of geopolitics and economic growth, this paper analyses India’s position in the South Asian and Indian Ocean region and more especially, explores how to achieve economic growth and security in a sustainable manner.

2. Introduction

2.1 Background and Context

The geopolitical composition of India is impacted foremost by its location in South Asia, a region well known for historical antagonism, cultural diversity and economic competition. Given the long land borders with some states such as China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar, quite a few challenges exist in pursuing the goals of national security and economic development for India. This geopolitically significant region is the area of focus as it contains a region that is important for trade and is also navigated by powerful countries. Coupled with the IOR, which is of great importance to India, the country’s relevance is further justified since the IOR connects South Asia with the Middle East, Southeast Asia and other regions, which requires maritime activities focused on trade, thus India’s role.

India’s relations with the countries in its neighborhood are often characterized by earlier disputes, ethnic and religious schisms, and a degree of rivalry that threatens the prospects of internal stability and growth. In recent years, undertakings of India’s foreign policy such as the Act East Policy and the Neighborhood First policy have been aimed at mitigating the impact of external powers, especially of China’s Belt and Road Initiative, in the integration of its neighbouring countries. Additionally, the region is also home to several regional grouping SAARC, BIMSTEC and BRICS for example, that facilitate multiplicity of engagement but have their engagements strained by intra-regional dynamics. With this in mind, it can be said that the economic growth and stability that India seeks lies within the geostrategic environment it is a part of. Policy domains pertaining regional issues such as terrorism, cross border migration, resource disputes, and connectivity projects immensely influence the way India’s economic and security policies are crafted.¹

2.2 Scope and Objectives of the Study

This study explores the interplay between geopolitical dynamics and India’s economic growth and internal stability. It seeks to understand how regional tensions, alliances, and power struggles impact India’s position as a rising economic power, with specific emphasis on the following objectives:

To analyze the strategic importance of South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region for India’s security and economic
To examine India’s bilateral and multilateral relationships with neighboring countries and how these relationships influence its economic opportunities and security concerns.
To investigate the economic impacts of regional geopolitics, including factors like foreign direct investment, energy security, and connectivity initiatives.
To assess the implications of border security, cross-border migration, and regional conflicts for India’s internal stability and policy-making.
To offer insights into emerging trends in regional geopolitics and identify both opportunities and challenges for India’s future growth and

By analyzing these elements, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how geopolitical dynamics in India’s neighborhood influence its economic trajectory and security landscape. Ultimately, this research seeks to highlight potential strategies that India could adopt to navigate regional complexities, leverage multilateral platforms, and promote long-term economic stability.

¹ Brookings

3. Geopolitical Overview of India’s Neighbourhood

3.1 Strategic Importance of South Asia and the Indian Ocean Region

The South Asian and Indian Ocean Region (IOR) is among the most significant regions in global politics in view of its location, natural resources, and trade movement. The IOR, which is located at the juncture of three continents, Asia, Africa, and Australia, is an important maritime corridor through which a significant share of the world’s fuels and goods pass. India therefore has a vested interest in this region for economic and maritime reasons as it provides India with open up new markets in Africa and South East Asia which will be helpful in curbing China’s expansion.²

India is also expected to play an important role for the United States in the region, hence the geographic location of Malacca Strait and the Persian Gulf. In this regard, the Indian Ocean turned into a zone of confrontation, enhanced by the BRI (Belt and Road Initiative) spills more militarization and economic development by building ports and infrastructure in South Asian countries. This geography implicates India in making its navy stronger, building partnerships with nations sharing the same views and interests and – preserving the stability of the region for its economic and strategic purposes.

3.2 Key Players and Relationships: India and it’s Neighbours

In close physical proximity to India is a geographical picture containing diverse and multifaceted relationships, primarily formed by the existing conflicts, business relations, and political coalitions.³ Each country above presents certain philosophical dilemmas and security issues, which either directly or indirectly influence India’s policy making:

China: India’s relationship with China is fraught with economic rivalries, ongoing military aggressions particularly the border conflict of Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh, and regional dominance contests in South Asia and Indian The two nations are members of an economic block known as BRICS, however, the competitive structures India’s Act East Policy and China’s BRI speak of how they both seek to win over the region.
Pakistan: Continuing with its age-old opposition, Pakistan has been a regional security threat to India primarily due to militants sponsored by it, the Kashmir issue and their cross border
Bangladesh: The relationship between Bangladesh and India is amicable, although These aspects of cooperation have helped brought the two countries

² ORF: India and the Indian Ocean Region: Emerging Strategic Challenges

³ Carnegie Endowment: Indian Ocean Initiative

closer, however, there remains issues such as border security, water sharing treaties, the Rohingya refugee crisis that continue to strain the diplomatic relationship.

Nepal and Bhutan: These two Himalayan countries present an important geographical aspect to such relations in that they serve as the first line of defence against any encroachment from China. Although traditionally, India has fond relations with the two, there are growing relations in particular between China and Nepal and this underscores the need to keep such
Sri Lanka and the Maldives: Sri Lanka and the Maldives which are based in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) are of geographical and strategic significance because of their location to the southern tip of India. The two countries have active

3.3 Regional Organizations and Multilateralism

The South Asian region is affected by a number of regional organizations and their active participation transforms the existing geopolitical dynamics in the region, however, quite a number of them have organizational and political constraints:

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation): SAARC was established to promote region – level integration and cooperation among its member states, however, has not operated as anticipated because of the stalk political landscape, especially between India and Nonetheless, it is still seen as an important forum for dialogue and coordinating efforts in responding to disasters in South Asia.
BIMSTEC, refers to Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation: This organization is south formative linking Southeast Asia with the south of Asia and thus India bears the brunt of its However, due to SAARC, Pakistan’s membership is not included in BIMSTEC which makes working economic and security relations much easier and especially in the context of energy, trade, and countering terrorism.
BRICS: BRICS is a phrase that means Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. This grouping is not chiefly about South Asia but offers a significant multilateral platform to India to engage with its economic and security issues with countries of another cluster of emerging economies. This enabled economic integration of the countries with collectivism’s spirit and gave space to India’s self- esteem quieting the Western establishments – IMF, World Bank

4. Implications for Economic Growth

4.1 Impact of Geopolitics on Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Foreign direct investment (FDI) remains one of the most import parts of the economic policies of India, helping build investments in areas like manufacturing and technology and green energy as well.⁴ On the other hand, geographical hostility from countries like Pakistan and China which are India’s neighboring countries may discourage investments. For example, the China India border dispute, the Himalayan region and its rivalry with Pakistan creates a certain risk for Indian global investors. Nations such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and, especially Bangladesh, have now been painted by capitalists with the presence of China’s billion-dollar infrastructure investment in South Asia, in other sectors, concentric to transport, logistics, and manufacturing.

India has, therefore, responded with a battery of diplomatic, economic strategies, “Act East” and “Neighborhood First”, which are geared towards deepening trade and investment relations, especially with ASEAN and its immediate region. For instance, India’s establishment of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)-funded infrastructure development and the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway other regional connectivity initiatives speak to the lowering of the barriers to market entry and expansion by cost-effective location and market access respectively. Indian diplomacy affirmatively includes the signing of Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreements (CEPAs) with countries like Japan and the UAE, suggesting the country’s seriousness in improving the investment climate.

It is of utmost importance for India to keep these diplomacy practices and economic relations because it will help in decreasing the level of risks posed by regional tensions therefore creating a perfect scenario for FDI and economic growth despite the political problems.

⁴ Hinrich Foundation: Impact of FDI on India

4.2 Energy Security and Resource Dependencies

Considering the fact that India imports most of its oil and natural gas, energy security within its borders would be best achieved in a stable and friendly neighborhood EAF. The Indian Ocean Rim – IOR is significant as it is used as a seaway for bringing energy in to India, therefore maritime relations with Southeast Asia, the circum-Middle East and East Africa are of national importance in energy policy. Sectors which have vulnerable geographical chokepoints like the Strait of Malacca which carries almost G0% of oils imports into India, underline the need for peace and stability in the region.⁵ Widening of sources of supply is another goal of India’s energy policy and includes, but is not limited to, supply of crude oil under measures of direct longterm procurement through the Middle East countries and raising supplies of crude oil from USA and Africa.

Increased stakes in the Indian Ocean from where China has come out of for its energy requirements raises the level of politics. The construction of things like naval facilities in Djibouti and a port in Gwadar, Pakistan, are permanent features of China making a case for India to defend its energy source. In this regard, India has turned to develop ports such as Chabahar in Iran, which provides an alternative pathway to reach central asia without crossing over Pakistani territory hence improving energy access.

In addition, India has, through the International Solar Alliance, which it co-founded with France reaffirms its intention for a shift away from the use of fossil fuels. This has also been extended in rejuvenating India’s hydropower relations with Bhutan and Nepal that enhance energy availability as well as economic integration of the region. These approaches all indicate that energy security is rooted in, and cannot be dissociated from geopolitics, as far as India is concerned.

4.3 Connectivity and Infrastructure Projects (Belt and Road Initiative, India’s Act East Policy)

At the very heart of India’s economic aspirations, and especially in relation to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), are the connectivity and infrastructure projects. The BRI has big political and economic implications for India because of the extensive infrastructural growth funded by China in Nations of South Asia. Countries like Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh are already benefiting from such Chinese development through port, highways and railroads building aimed at increasing trade, but also making them more binded to Chinese economy. For India, this soars the need to build or bring into use its own regional network of infrastructure and connectivity projects on its territory so that it can still play a significant role.

⁵ Brookings

Under the Act East Policy, India aims at establishing relations with ASEAN member countries and developing economic supportive infrastructure. Prominent projects included in this policy are Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project aimed at improving connection with Myanmar and India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway which plans to provide an alternate trade access to Southeast Asia. In addition, the state of India with regard to various infrastructural projects such as the Chabahar Port in Iran explains her quest to extend means of access that are not limited to the control of China, thus enabling India to have much safer trade routes with Central Asia.^G

Moreover, India’s backing for BIMSTEC (Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) indicates its aspiration to develop partnerships in the region that extend beyond mere physical links. Accordingly, some of the constituents of India’s regional policy, which has the goal of linking South Asia to the global digital economy, include projects such as cyber security cooperation and the development of internet networks. In aggregate, these infrastructure and connectivity initiatives serve not only to offset China’s BRI but also endeavor to establish India as an economically safe ally within South Asia and to the greater world.

5. Implications for Internal StabilitySecurity

5.1 Border Security and National Defence

Border security and national defense are essential aspects of India’s internal order, particularly considering the complex geopolitical relations around it. The most volatile geographical boundaries of India are with two countries regarded as its greatest geopolitical rivals namely Pakistan and China. The Indian nation’s borders with these countries have always been witnesses to conflict, political tensions, and territorial wrangles. What’s more; these tensions threaten borders and national security in India, not to mention the fact that they pose a threat to the peace and security of the entire country.

Dynamics of Indo-Pak Border

Indo-Pak tensions has most of the turned into very costly military engagements since the partition of British India – 1947. Since the state of Jammu and Kashmir is in dispute, the two countries have engaged in multiple wars, armed conflicts, and many cease fire treaties since then. The Kashmir Line of Control or L.O.C considered as world’s one of the most heavily guarded and militarized zones in daily outburst prudent of ceasfire violations as well as cross border terrorism. The ongoing strife has put a drain on India’s defensive

⁶ Institute for Defence Studies and Analysis

capabilities and hence has caused a heavy military concentration in the area which in turn has an adverse effect on other areas which are crucial for the overall national development.

India and China Have Border Conflicts

The border issues that India has with china especially with its land borders that encompasses Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh has not left aside problems of national defence and security. As the 19G2 Indo-China war speaks a lot over such border issues, recent skirmishes like the Galwan valley clash in 2020 indicates that all these territorial disagreements are still far from resolution. The Line of Actual Control (LAC) which is the de facto border does not cease from being a hot zone characterized by face-offs and military posturing from both parties. China’s growing military presence in Tibet, coupled with the infrastructure expansion in the region bordering LAC, has caused incipient threats in India which may result into skirmishes of a greater magnitude. As a result, India has positioned more troops along the China boundary and has sought to develop its border development in order to facilitate support for military operations. The strategic shift of the Indian government towards enhancing defence relations with major powers, especially the USA through the Quad alliance, shows the intent of the government to check rising china in the region.

National Defense Strategies and Reforms

To manage these border security issues, India has, in recent years, implemented certain defence reforms. The Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) position, as well as the reconfiguration of military commands, is aimed at coordination of the different armed branches and enhancing India’s capacity for border response action. Also, its defense procurement policy in recent times has been directed towards the enhancement of the country’s military power through the purchase of sophisticated military hardware such as Rafale jets and the S-400 missile system.

5.2. Social and Political Impact of Cross-Border Migration

In South Asia, there are direct social and political implications of cross-border migration to India. Because India is the largest country in the region, more often than not, India experiences an influx of several groups of people from within the region, for instance, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Nepal. Such migrations can be attributed to many factors including disparity in per capita income, unstable governments, ethnic bloodshed, and climatic changes. Though, in some instances, it is common to see how migration bears economic benefits, its implications manifests in several societal and political problems which in turn affects the internal peace of the nation India.

Out-migration to India from Bangladesh

Out-migration from Bangladesh to India is one clear example of the cross border migration trends in the immediate neighborhood of India. Most Indian states especially West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura have international borders with Bangladesh resulting into high levels of immigration in India. themigration has also been encouraged by other factors such as unfavourable issues in Bangladesh, including natural disasters such as floods and sea level rise. The massive out-migration from Bangladesh has quite often resulted into social friction in the border states as portions of the populations tend to view other groups as a threat regarding available labor, land, or wealth. Where state conflicts have also been witnessed such as in Assam migration from the present day Bangladesh dramatically altered that state of affair. In order to avert the consequences of this retrenchment policy of Assam’s boundaries, 1985 Accord was made,which was aimed at recognizing and expelling such illegal migrants, but its realization has not been effective. The much-debated exercise of the National Register of Citizens (NRC) in Assam was aimed at screening illegal immigrants and further strained the relations between the natives and the settlers.⁷

Tensions over the Rohingya Refugee Crisis in India

Rohingya refugee crisis is also another example of migration impacting India. This is the case of the Burmese in India who because of the persistent violent persecution of the Rohingya Muslims has led them to seek refugee in the nearby countries including India. The Indian government has been well aware of the presence of Rohingya refugees within its borders, but it has refused to embrace them for fear of national security and radicalization. Besides, and even with the UN pressure, India is making attempts to send the Rohingyas back to Myanmar, arguing that it is a matter of national interest and is worrying about its internal politics.

In this regard, the issue of the presence of Rohingya refugees has also led to a plethora of political discourses with some political parties exploiting the migration issue to galvanise support along religious lines. The ongoing Rohingya crisis has also brought into sharp relief the challenges faced in attempting to meet the demands of international humanitarianism and politics and security at the domestic level.

5.3. Regional and Ethnic Conﬂicts: Case Studies from Northeast India

The region of Northeast India which includes Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and Tripura has been ever since depicted in a series of regional and ethnic strife. Incited by issues of self governance, ethnic identity and control over resources, the reasons for these conflicts have

⁷ The Political Demography of Assam’s Anti-Immigrant Movement on JSTOR

existed for years in the history, culture, and politics of this region. The diverse ethnic composition, geographical remoteness of the region and the country’s borders with Bangladesh, Bhutan, Myanmar, and China have all played their part in aggravating such tensions over the years.

Ethnic Conflicts in Assam

Assam is a state the northeastern region of India, is home to one of the most brutal ethnic conflicts in the country that to over the immigration and nativity dichotomy. The main problem with the resentment towards Bangladeshi immigrants is the scale in which the phenomenon occurs in Assam, which, irrationally, provoked even such blood-thirsty movements as the Assam Agitation (1979–1985) that aimed to drive all the intruders out and defend the indigenous Assamese people. The All Assam Students’ Union (AASU) and many ethnic groups took active part in these campaigns, and the result of these activities led to an understanding known as Assam Accord in 1985 which assured that all illegal immigrants would be identified and removed.

However, even after the signing of the Accord, the situation remains alarming in Assam with sporadic violence occurring between natives and migrants. The Bodoland Territorial Area Districts (BTAD) have also experienced violent confrontations involving Bodo and non-Bodo groups, and particularly Bengali Muslims. The 2012 Kokrajhar riots, which caused massive fatalities and the exodus of many individuals, accentuated the manifold ethnic extremities of the region. The recent developments where the government of Assam sought the registration of all the citizens in the state through the National Register of Citizens (NRC), ostensibly to weed out illegal immigrants turned out to be ethnically divisive and politically incendiary.

Nagaland and Manipur: Internal Armed Conflicts and Tensions

Naga Land and Manipur have been areas of great concern as far as Insurgency and exaction of the right to self-determination from Indian authorities is concerned. The Naga insurgency, in which factions such as the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) take part, has been one of the most extended armed challenges in history. The Naga ethnos, inhabiting Nagaland, Manipur and partly even Myanmar, has a longstanding aspiration of their own territorial unit, referred to as ‘Nagalim.’ The unending hostilities have led to violent confrontations over the years especially between Indian security forces and Naga fighters.

Moving on, Manipur too has had its share of separation-related concerns. The state has witnessed numerous ethnic conflicts involving the Meitei, Naga and Kuki. Each these

groups fights for a piece of land and political supremacy. Doctrines of armed insurrection have been adopted of late by numerous groups, like the United National Liberation Front (UNLF) and the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) to name a few, which have organized armed resistance to the Indian state for the purpose of achieving secession or autonomy. These traumas are inter-locked with geopolitics as this region is very much close to the borders of Myanmar, which has been in an insurgency for decades and a hub of arms and drug smuggling activities.

Ethnic Conflict in Tripura

Ethnic tensions have been prevalent in the state of Tripura with regard to the tribal population of Tripuris and the Bengali settlers, who form a large proportion of the present day population of the state. A significant portion of the state’s population, which has changed as a result of the influx of immigrants who moved in from Bangladesh, particularly after the division of the subcontinent in 1947 and the actions that came after the Bangladesh Liberation struggle of 1971. The, TAADC, is institutional reform designed with the objective of protecting the indigenous peoples of the territory as well as their interests in the resources of the area, however, that has not been the case and so there has been violence from time to time.In the late 1980s, the National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) and the All Tripura Tiger Force (ATTF) saw a sudden rise in their numbers, motivated by the expansion of political demand and control to the native people. Despite the fact that violence has been on a downward trend over the last years, the family of ethnic issues persists, and the fear that these issues may escalate into violence in the future is present.⁸

Government Response and Peace Initiatives

The Indian state has made extensive interventions to cope with ethnic conflict in the Northeast region of India, including peacekeeping, political bargaining, and even military action. The employment of the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA), which provides exceptional authorities for the army in ‘disturbed areas,’ has been one of the controversial issues of the government policy adopted. It is anticipated that the law would restrict internal assaults, but has come under criticism due to human rights violations and disaffection among the populace.

In the last couple of years, the Indian government has also admittd the insurgent groups for peace talks, and as a result of which several ceasefire agreements have been made. For example, the present Naga peace talks between the central government and the NSCN (IM) is more or less effective in the maintenance of peace in Nagaland; however, a final

⁸ Review: [Untitled] on JSTOR

resolution has not been achieved to this day. In addition to this, the Assam Accord and establishment of the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) were also other ways to manage ethnic tensions in the state of Assam but the situation is still tense.

5.4. Terrorism, Radicalization and Internal Security Challenges

With regard to terrorism and radicalization, India is subjected to certain internal security challenges that can be attributed to a mix of regional geopolitics, foreign interference and domestic sociopolitical settings. In India, terrorism assumes various forms such as cross-border terrorism, local extremism, and the radicalization of certain societal elements which have and continue to be a threat to the stability and security of the Indian state.

Cross-Border Terrorism

The issue of cross-border terrorism, in particular from Pakistan, is an enduring concern for national security in India. The territorial conflict of Kashmir gave rise to the militant activities of extremist factions like Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) and Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) against Indian military and citizens within the region. Removing these groups from the equation has proven difficult especially with the knowing that Muslims inclined to violence and terror are active in both Kashmir and other regions of India. Militant Islamist terrorism has posed such a threat that it has repeatedly led to war scares, as in the case of India and Pakistan in 2019, following the especially painful Pulwama incident.

India has adopted a policy of zero tolerance towards such activities and has geared up counterinsurgency operations while tightening security along the borders. Stratagems such as “Operation All-Out” in J& K target and attempt to contain insurgency.⁹

Yet, the fact that militant activity persists illustrates the more profound difficulties of addressing terrorism particularly that which is projected to India from outside especially when the countries supporting this terrorism face political ostracism foedus inter gentes ii of Pakistan.

Radicalisation and Domestic Extremism

In addition to cross-border terrorism, another challenge that India is facing is the spiral of radicalization in the domestic front. Radicalisation in the Indian context is viewed in the context of economic inequalities, due to caste and religion and real or imagined grievances with the state. Extremist ideologies, in certain cases, influence peripheral sections of the community, the youth in particular, often as a result of the organic propaganda and the

9 Sharma, R. (2017). Counterterrorism in India: A Comprehensive Analysis. Sage Publications..

latter day revolutionary online movements. Jammu and Kashmir, some parts of Kerala and the Northeastern region, have for instance, experienced cases of radicalization among young people due to exposure to social media and other sources of extremist messages.

The Indian government has adopted a multifaceted strategy to fight radicalization, involving de-radicalization programs, soft approaches, and monitoring of the Internet. For example, in Jammu and Kashmir the government embarked on the rehabilitation of returnees who were captured after surrendering and are thus known as surrender militants since the target is to remove. Community awareness programs are also important in addressing the issue of radicalization especially in areas prone to such tendencies. LWE or Left-Wing Extremism also known as Naxalism is another internal security threat for India. It is largely centered in the so-called ‘Red Corridor’ region that includes geographical regions of several states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, and parts of Maharashtra among others. LWE is mainly fueled by socio-economic injustices like land reforms and the demand for the self-rule of indigenous people. Groups like the Communist party of India (Maoist) have taken up arms against the government, targeting its military, the infrastructure, and citizens who they deem sympathisers of the government.

The Indian authorities have also undertaken counter-insurgency campaigns called “Operation Green Hunt” with the purpose of breaking the chain of the Maoist organizational structure and restoring normalcy in the affected areas. In addition, development interventions such as the Integrated Action Plan (IAP) for districts with LWE problems have been developed to help deal with the socio-economic and governance challenges in such areas. However, despite these measures, the state has continued to face the menace of the Maoists insurgency, indicating the need for a comprehensive strategy which combines security operations and development programs.

The increasing use of the internet and the availabilities of advanced information technology have to begin utilizing radicalization and terrorism. Hardware , software and the plus location ‘the dark net’ make it easier for the extremists from all the spectrum of ideology to recruit , plan and share the beliefs. In addition, in the past few years conspiracy theories and invasions of privacy especially cybernetic attacks on the government web surfaces of India have increased dramatically, supplied with causes of foreign enemies.

In active response, India has been in the process of establishing a comprehensive cybersecurity structure by putting in place agencies such as the National Acquisition Security Agency and formulating strategies to prevent possible cyberinhubrage. In addition to all this, India is also associating with the local international software companies with a view to tracking and deleting the radical content present on the worldwide web, however, guaranteeing safety on the cyberspace is still a whole of another issue.

Policy making and Security measures

India has undertaken a number of policy reforms and strategic measures to enhance the internal security architecture of the nation. This UAPA, has provided the legislative framework for terror related laws enabling the state to declare individuals and the groups as terrorists and punish them appropriately. The National Investigation Agency (NIA) investigates and prosecutes terrorism and its related crimes and also liaises with the police of various state for the same purpose. Moreover, the government has enhanced its alliance with global partners in its fight against terrorism, joining and actively participating in several such as the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) against the financing of terrorism and for provision of better intelligence. India is equipping itself with advanced counterterrorism tactics, techniques and equipment from countries like America and Israel, thus enhancing its capacity to meet its security needs in the face of ever dynamic threats.

6. Case Studies

C.1 India’s Handling of the Doklam Standoﬀ with China

The year 2017 marked another key point in the ever-deteriorating relations between China and India – the tension lasting almost three months between the two states in the Doklam plateau escalated primarily due to India’s interests in securing its borders and territories located nearby. The impasse took place in the region referred to as the Doklam plateau, which is a zone of territorial contention by both China and Bhutan, as it is situated in the proximity of the India-Bhutan-China tri-junction. China began carrying out activities to construct a road in the disputed region which provoked a fierce reaction from India leading to a military standoff that lasted for 73 days. However, India’s dealing with the Doklam issue showcased the great lengths it was ready to go in as far as its strategic interests were concerned and also its emerging status as a regional power.

Strategies of Diplomacy and Military in the Doklam Conflict

In the case of the Doklam standoff, the response was active and composed however it was military options that were emphasised rather than threats particular in the political sphere. Troops of the Indian Army were sent in to stop the construction of the road being built by the People’s Republic of China, resulting in an impasse between the two countries, Indian and Chinese forces. But in stark contrast to earlier border conflicts in which India only retreated to defensive positions, the standoff of Doklam was dramatic¹⁰.

¹⁰ Modi and the Reinvention of Indian Foreign Policy

Primarily focusing on military readiness complemented by diplomacy means risky waves of incursion into the enemy territory while at the same time pressuring the enemy into submission without any overt military engagement. India, through diplomacy engaged in lengthy back-and-forth dealings with China to avert an external widening of the conflict and resorted to diplomatic means to solve the problem peacefully. The strategy in response, however, did not waver on the issue of territorial integrity, but rather focused on de-escalation. Eventually, this political activity culminated in a ceasefire with all troops pulling back from the area of conflict.

Repercussions for Relations between India and China

The Doklam standoff was a landmark event in Indo-Chinese relations, revealing the complex and often tenuous arrangements that underlie the two countries’ borders. Though affected by this ‘standoff,’ both countries undertook diplomatic measures to ‘normalise’ the situation, which finally resulted in the 2018 summit, in which Indian PM Modi Xi Jinping met. The focus, in this case, was on cooperation and the need for border disputes to be resolved without aggression even as tempers were still on the boiling mode.

Rather than these diplomatic moves, the whole episode of the Indo-Chinese khuru games has been felt in the entirety of the bilateral relations. The standoff became a conflict in the appraisal of the resources and highlighted the importance of meeting the accountability in each state management regime. The face-off was unavoidable regarding geographical realisations between the two nations making 2020 Galwan Valley clashes an unfortunate history as well. That’s why India has also started re-development of its military infrastructure and enhancing Military powers along with the Line of Actual Control (LAC).

C.2 India’s Response to the Pulwama Attack and Balakot Airstrike

The Pulwama attack on February 14, 2019, and the subsequent Balakot airstrike marked a turning point in India’s counter-terrorism strategy and its approach to dealing with cross-border terrorism. The Pulwama attack, one of the deadliest in Kashmir in recent years, involved a suicide bombing carried out by Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM), a Pakistan-based terrorist organization, which killed 40 Indian paramilitary personnel. India’s response, the Balakot airstrike, demonstrated a shift toward a more assertive military and diplomatic posture in countering terrorism originating from across the border.. In addition to the attack’s tragic human toll, it raised questions about India’s internal security, particularly in Jammu and Kashmir, and the efficacy of its counter-terrorism efforts¹¹

¹¹ (PDF) Pakistan-India after Pulwama Attacks: Theoretical Assessment

In the morning hours of the 2Gth of February, year 2019, a day less than two weeks after the Pulwama attack, and also the identified terrorist camps suspected to belong to JeM in Balakot which is found in Khyber pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan was bombed by India. This was the first incident since the war of 1971 that the Indian Air force over the Line of Control (LoC) moved into Pakistan which was a clear indication that there are changes in India’s strategy in combating terrorism. The objective of the Balakot airstrike was to showcase India’s resolve that terrorist infrastructure should be targeted without question if it means putting drug the LoC. The Balakot strike had multiple objectives, to destroy the terrorist training camp, to send a message to Pakistan regarding counter terrorism policy, and to embrace a new unspoken policy whereby India will not hesitate from taking offence. It was a major shift from the Indian government’s earlier responses which were primarily of diplomatic and defensive postures without entering into the enemy territory.¹²

Long term strategic implications

In the sphere of serious long-term strategic implications The Balakot airstrike set the ground for India’s policy towards terrorism perpetrated from across its borders limiting the scope of such operations. This is indicative of a more aggressive and forward looking posture where India is willing to undertake strikes beyond the LoC if terrorist targets are available and the situation allows. In the post-Balakot environment, India has redirected its attention inward with the objective of improving its capabilities particularly in the area of airpower projection, surveillance and rapid global strike to counter threats from across its borders. The Balakot airstrike has also had strategic consequences on ‘diplomacy in extremis’ with respect to India’s relations with Pakistan in the context of terrorism as an issue. It also showed that India was willing to increase the stakes even further in its conflict with Pakistan, which is a factor that currently shapes the relations of the two South Asian rivals and adds complexity to their strategic calculations. While the risks of war are always present,… Balakot has still concretely changed how India looks at threats of cross border terror and its national security.

C.3. The Impact of the Rohingya Crisis on India-Bangladesh Relations

The Rohingya crisis which started in 2017 with the nonspecific ethnic cleansing campaign in Rakhine State of Myanmar against the Muslim minority of the Rohingyas, has also greatly affected the relations between India and Bangladesh. The Rohingya crisis turned a million who’s rather consequent forcible deportation to Bangladesh for torture and other inhumane treatment placed a huge social, economic and security burden on Bangladesh.

¹² Explained: How Balakot Changed the Familiar Script of India-Pakistan Military Crises – Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace

Also India was placed in this very uncomfortable situation, where similar factors such as national security, struggles of stability, and maintaining relations both with Myanmar and Bangladesh at the same time, were pressing and anxious to it. The phenomenon of the crisis has been a stress-test for the India-Bangladesh relations and has brought to the fore many facets that are both compatible and contradictory in nature.

Burden of Bangladesh and Expectations from India

While over a million people are crowded in Cox’s Bazar temporary camps as refugees, Cox’s Bazar has been the most hostile territory in the world to climate change and marine life. Bangladesh was hoping to form an alliance with its regional partners in particular India for humanitarian aid and support relief measures to end the crisis and facilitate the repatriation of Rohingya refugees. While some funding was assistance was extended to Bangladesh by India, and humanitarian supplies were channelled to the camps, Bangladesh was looking for more aggressive diplomatic assistance from India, especially towards Myanmar regarding accepting back the displaced persons, the Rohingyas. However, such a situation with Myanmar was rather discomforting for India, as it was prudent to avoid being involved in the complexities of the political crisis to protect the ties it has with Myanmar.

Tensions and Promotion of Zusammenarbeit

The Rohingya issue also caused some diplomatic tension between India and Bangladesh. With the crisis stretching out longer and pressure building up with no regional support, Dhaka had expressed annoyance with the neighbouring countries’ lack of assistance. India’s inability to take an active stance to compel Myanmar to facilitate the repatriation process was viewed as an inconsistency of its approach to supporting the overall stability of the region and the interests of Bangladesh.

In spite of these tendencies both countries actively undertook measures that could be classified as cooperative within the larger framework of India-Bangladesh relations so as to deal with the crisis. India supported over $25 million worth of humanitarian relief assistance to Bangladesh and assisted in the construction of the refugee camps’ health centres and supply of basic items. Not only this, but India and Bangladesh have also taken measures to prevent the trans-border trafficking of people as well as improve the management of the borders.

Regional Security Concerns

The Rohingya crisis has heightened security concerns in the region, with both India and Bangladesh concerned about the potential for radicalization and the involvement of extremist groups. The overcrowded and resource-strained refugee camps in Cox’s Bazar

present an environment susceptible to radical influences, and the presence of transnational groups poses risks for regional security. India and Bangladesh have increased cooperation on intelligence-sharing and border security to address these concerns. Both countries are committed to preventing illegal cross-border movement and tracking any extremist elements operating along their shared borders. This security cooperation is crucial for ensuring that the crisis does not contribute to instability in either country, though the possibility of radicalization remains an ongoing challenge¹³

7. Future Outlook

7.1 Emerging Trends in Regional Geopolitics

In the recent past, the geopolitics of South Asia has changed a lot due to economic aspirations, strategies and mainly, the influence of regional powers. While India is experiencing such changes, some trends are emerging along with its neighbourhood that bring in opportunities and challenges for its foreign policy and economic stability. These trends especially include factors such as the rise in China’s influence, changes in fund mobilisation and utilisation structures, importance of economic and infrastructure development, and most importantly Indo Pacific’s strategic role.

Strengthening of Quad and Indo-Pacific Cooperation

With respect to Indian foreign policy, the Indo-Pacific region is gaining prominence, especially in the context of the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (also called the Quad) which includes India, the US, Japan, and Australia. The Quad has largely been conceived to hedge against China’s growing footprints in the Indo-Pacific region, advocating for a free and open Indo-Pacific, rule of law and maritime security. India’s interaction with the Quad has been indicative of the country’s transition to multilateralism and security cooperation with regional and global repercussions. India’s strategic anchoring has been reinforced by joint naval exercises, defence partnership coalitions and economic cooperation in the framework of the Quad. It indicates India’s dedication to strategizing in favour of a rules-based regional order, while also indicating a more proactive resistance to China’s territorial aggression.

Changes in India-Pakistan Relations

The relations between India and Pakistan continue to be tumultuous and there has been little improvement in the prospects of peace negotiations. The abrogation of Article 370 in October 2019 which abrogated the special status of Jammu & Kashmir has caused even

¹³ (PDF) The Rohingya Refugee Crisis: Implications for Regional Security

more tensions between the two nations. Border fires, cross-border terrorism, and conflicting strategic compulsions have slid them into a greater violence. A new axis of camaraderie is being formed within the region with strong associations emanating from CPEC and other China-Pakistan collaborations which make shifts in the balance of power in South Asia. Although direct diplomacy between India and Pakistan has been absent, both nations will seek to use more external influence and relate to partnerships which will lead to more tension within the region.

The Upwards Trajectory of Regional Multiple Partnerships and Collective Defence

In the South Asian context, there is also an observable propensity toward regional multilateralism exemplified by BIMSTEC and IORA. That is whyIndia’s involvement in these institutions is indicative of its desire to shape regional order towards stability, security, and development, without complete dependence on great powers. In this context, India also intends to integrate the members of the Bay of Bengal Initiatives for Multi-sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) and develop economics, security and infrastructure projects in this coastal area through geopolitical approaches.

Besides, the prominence of non-traditional security challenges like climate change, cyber crimes and terrorism also highlights the importance of the need to adopt a collective security approach. Engagement with regional and multilateral platforms allows India to deal with these challenges octopogenally and at the same time ashore South Asia’s leadership.

7.2. Opportunities for India in Strengthening Economic Ties

The South Asian region is currently undergoing several shifts of a geopolitical nature, and therefore offers India enough room to explore its economic relations not only with the immediate neighbours but also with the countries beyond them. It is these same geographic and economic advantages thanks to which India is embarking on different attempts to improve intra-regional trade, investment and connectivity. This is done to neutralise the dominance of other regional actors, most notably China, and build a conducive economic environment in South Asia.

Strengthening Economic Relations with South Asian Circuit

India has made various attempts to promote trade with its direct neighbours through bilateral and multilateral treaties. For example, projects such as the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) and the Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) initiative seek to facilitate regional trade by lowering tariffs, streamlining customs procedures, and increasing the movement of goods across borders, all of which are crucial for India. Enhanced interaction

among India’s neighbours would help create a conducive environment in the region and support the country’s efforts to build trade relations with them. Moreover, the expansion of trade relations is experienced not only within Asia but also within the regions of trade partners like Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. For instance, Bangladesh is currently ranking one of the highest for India’s import and export purposes within the South Asian region with insights into the bilateral transaction climbing beyond $ 10 billion within recent times. Such growth in trade is not only advantageous economically for India but also serves to strengthen the countries’ bilateral ties and creates a good perception of India as an ally that can be relied upon for business.

Investment and Infrastructure Project

The Act East Policy of India, on the other hand, in collaboration with Japan, works out the Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC), – to develop alternative strategies to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) targeting infrastructure development in South Asia and other nations. Investment in transport, energy and digital infrastructure is aimed at regional connectivity to cut down on the economic dependence on China. For instance, the Chabahar Port project in Iran by India provides New Delhi with a strategic route towards landlocked Afghanistan and Central Asian regions without the necessity to use Pakistani territory. In similar fashion, Indian capital has entered energy and infrastructure projects in quite a number of countries like Bhutan and Nepal as well as Sri Lanka. These inject foreign capital to host countries but also allow India to assert her dominance and consolidate her position politically in the region.

Broader Economic Relationships with the Indo-Pacific Region

The Indo-Pacific region has become of paramount importance in the economic and strategic thinking of India, especially when it comes to India’s role in the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) also comprising the USA, Japan and Australia. The Indo-Pacific strategy for India is not just about security but also about economic engagement in sectors such as maritime trade, digital technology and infrastructure. With the offer of initiatives like Supply Chain Resilience Initiative (SCRI) with Japan and Australia, India aims at building more dependable trade pathways, as well as avoiding the supply chain issues that came to the surface during the COVID 19 pandemic, especially the international trade relations. Building economic relations in the Indo-pacific is not only for the economic borders of India but also matches the country’s narrative of “free, open and inclusive” Indo pacific wherein, regions resisting to the expansion of China’s influence in the way are provided with an economical means.

Energy Partnerships and Investments in Renewable Resources

This is yet another area in which India can seize opportunities, particularly through investments in renewable energy. Ever since announcing ambitious targets within the International Solar Alliance (ISA), India has been considered one of the fore-runners in renewable forms of energy. Under the ISA, India is also able to engage its South Asian neighbours in bilateral solar energy projects, thereby enhancing energy security and minimising the need to resort to energy imports from sources outside the region.

The case of investment in hydropower by India in Nepal and Bhutan illustrates energy relationships that are development friendly in that they contribute to solving energy deficits and achieving energy sustainability in the two countries. Furthermore, cooperative activities on energy gird interconnections with Bangladesh are also an added advantage to the relations while offering benefits such as a regular supply of energy to the two countries.¹⁴

7.3. Potential Risks to Economic Growth and Stability

Although India has ample prospects to improve its regional economic standing, there are a plethora of risks associated with the country’s growth and stability. These include the external environment in terms of pressures from geopolitical tensions, interdependence of economies, climate change, and internal factors like social injustice or political disarray. To this end, it is imperative for India to manage these risks if it desires to achieve a continual increase in its economy and retain its position as the most influential country in South Asia.

Geopolitical Tensions with China and Pakistan.

The economic outlook for India is at high risk because of the geopolitical limitations, especially those related to China and Pakistan. Amicable borders have been attempted in vain e.g. the case of the countries sharing the Line of Actual Control with China; these embassies have gone as far as military engagements and increased expenditures in defence, thereby taking away funds for developing the economies. In the year 2020 for instance, India experienced a standoff in the Galwan Valley that raised civil-military tensions and led to the elevating of the defence budget in India affecting the economic focus of the state. Moreover, the presence of Pakistan as an ally of China in such projects as the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) threatens India’s hegemony in the region and creates instability in the economy due to security risks.

¹⁴ Invigorating India’s Economic Diplomacy in South Asia on JSTOR

Dependence on Imports and Trade Imbalances

Excessive reliance on imports, especially of energy and technology continues to be a challenge for India. Even though India is working towards increasing home production through ideologies like “Make in India” and the Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India) project, it continues to depend on other countries, especially China for imports. The trade imbalances and supply disruptions brought out by the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the dangers that come along with too much import reliance. While these dependencies are difficult to cut, it is imperative for India to become economically resilient and stable.¹⁵

Environmental Factors and Climate Change

Long term economic growth risks associated with climate change are also significant for India. Being an agrarian economy, India is vulnerable to climate-related factors such as erratic monsoon patterns, drought and flood cycles that disrupt farming practice and rural economies. Most importantly, tropical climate also raises health problems and breakdown of productivity which slows down the economy due to higher expenditure on healthcare. In response to these challenges, India has accepted renewable energy commitments and established the International Solar Alliance (ISA) in order to promote clean energy. Nevertheless, the building of climate change adaptive capacities will take a toll on the country’s fiscal resources in the short-term as it entails heavy investments into sustainable and efficient infrastructure, water systems enhancement and disaster risk management.

Global Economic Uncertainty

The external risk to India’s economy due to global economic uncertainty, which includes volatility in commodity prices, trade conflicts and fluctuations in financial markets, poses a great challenge. For example, it is expected that the increase in oil prices will have a serious budgetary effect on India since it is a predominant oil importer. Trade tentacles such as the US-China trade spats and other global wars have repercussions to India’s exports, especially in IT and manufacturing.

In addition, the fluctuations in interest rates in North America or any other developed country may cause capital flight from countries like India, thus destabilising the currency and causing a reduction in investments. These and other exogenous challenges present a tough task for the economic managers of the country who have to navigate global currents whilst maintaining growth in the economy. Political Fragmentation and Policy Instability Due to its Federal nature India’s democracy gives room for differences. The situation can be worsened, particularly, in regard to land policies, labour policies, and environmental

¹⁵ India’s Emerging Economic Challenges on JSTOR

policies, due to conflicts between the national government and the regional governments. There are many instances where it has become hard to complete infrastructural works owing to changes in the hierarchy of the state, which in turn affects the investment scenario and retards economic development.^1G

8. Conclusion

The conclusion of this paper underscores India’s complex geopolitical environment, particularly her relations with the countries around her, determines her economic aspirations as well as the stability within the country’s ethnics. The geographical location of the country in the South Asian region and the Indian ocean region makes it a centrepiece of regional as well as global power politics. The research goes on to examine the fact that India has contending initiatives for example the ‘Act East’ and ‘Neighborhood First’ strategies that are geared towards ensuring economic and security integration in the region which is vital to countervail the impact of the growing Chinese belt road initiative. The active participation of India in SAARC, BIMSTEC, the Quad, and similar organisations is indicative of a wider policy aimed at consolidating Indian regional power without enhancing its interdependence with the region for security.

At the same time, however, the paper pinpoints the critical obstacles that stand in the way of India’s sustainable development. Tensions along India’s borders with China and Pakistan because of geopolitical competition and rivalry keeps hot borders requiring high defence expenditure at the expense of economic growth. Unsettled territorial disputes especially with China in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh as well as with Pakistan in Kashmir remain threats to India’s peace and economic development. Moreover, issues other than internal migration such as illegal migration, more especially from Bangladesh and Myanmar, are also social and political problems that take a toll on the economy of the border states while causing discord within the country.

This paper explains that India suffers from an energy import strategy and more so from an injury regarding measures implemented within countries like China, which complicates its regional strategies even more, economically. All energy security-related initiatives including the Chabahar Port project in Iran and the launch of the International Solar Alliance signify how India is attempting to widen the scope of the sources and deepen the interconnections of the energies’ regimes in the region. Conversely, infrastructure projects, such as the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, which constructs a new arc of independent transit routes, are aimed at diminishing the risks of over-dependence on China’s BRI while ensuring that trade corridors remain open.

¹⁶ Strategic Consequences of India’s Economic Performance on JSTOR

In addition, the document helps the reader understand the social dimensions of regional Geo politics such as Ethnic and Political conflicts in the Northeast regions of India, being a product of not only internal factors but also external factors that challenges India’s ability to sustain its internal order. Transnational terrorism, extremism, and radicalization further complicate India’s security system, as it demands internal mechanisms to respond and cooperate with foreign nations.

Lastly, the article states that the future of India will depend on the maintenance of an appropriate ratio between regional politics, economic activity, and military power. India has to keep on making the best use of regional cooperation with other countries while making internal changes and building up the facilities that promote sustainability in the long run. It is imperative for India to deal with these concerns not only as a power within the region but also as a growing, stable entity on the world stage, given the rapid changes occurring globally.